What do you mean by pipelining in computer architecture? Explain the concept of instruction-level pipelining using a four-segment pipeline with a space-time diagram processing six instructions. Derive the speedup formula for an n-segment pipeline.

Explain the Booth Multiplication Algorithm with a flowchart and hardware implementation diagram. Using Booth's algorithm, multiply  +6 x (-5)  in 5-bit signed 2's complement representation, showing all steps clearly in a table.

Explain the concept of cache memory and its importance in the memory hierarchy. Describe the three cache mapping techniques with suitable diagrams. Also, explain write-through and write-back cache write policies in brief.

What are the different methods of representing negative (signed) numbers in binary? Represent the decimal number  -45  using those formats in 8-bit representation.

What is a micro-operation? Explain the hardware implementation that performs 4-bit addition and subtraction.

What is instruction? Explain instruction format and memory structure of basic computer.

What is microprogram? Differentiate between hardwired control and microprogrammed control unit.

Explain any 4 addressing modes with example of each.

Explain the microprogram sequencer with the necessary diagrams.

Explain Direct Memory Access (DMA) with a block diagram of a DMA controller. Describe the sequence of operations that takes place during a DMA data transfer.

What is stack? Use stack in the evaluation of postfix expression  5  6  2  -  3  2 ^*  4  /  + with step by step description.

Write short notes on: 

      a. Flynn's Classification

      b. Input Output Processor